[History Lives On – Gojoseon Series] Episode 15: The Four Commanderies of Han – Korea After Gojoseon
When 2,225 years of history ended, a new era began. In 108 BC, as the walls of Wanggeomseong [wahng-guhm-suhng] fell and Gojoseon [go-jo-suhn] collapsed, the Han dynasty established four commanderies—administrative units that would shape the Korean Peninsula for the next four centuries.
Lelang [leh-lahng], Zhenfan [juhn-fahn], Lintun [lin-toon], and Xuantu [shoo-ahn-too]. These four names dominated Korea’s destiny for 400 years. How did the descendants of Gojoseon live under Han rule? What was Lelang like, where indigenous Koreans and Han Chinese coexisted in an uneasy duality?
On the southern bank of the Taedong River in Pyongyang, traces remain even today. The Lelang earthen fortress and the splendid lacquerware, bronze mirrors, and wooden tablets inscribed with Chinese characters excavated there vividly testify to the cultural collision and fusion that occurred on this land 2,000 years ago. This is a story not just of conquest, but of resistance, adaptation, and the forging of a hybrid culture that would profoundly influence Korean civilization.
◆ The Ancient Landscape
In the summer of 108 BC, immediately after destroying Wiman Joseon, Emperor Wu of Han [pronunciation: woo] set about dividing the territory. To efficiently govern Gojoseon’s vast lands, he partitioned them into four commanderies—what we call the Han Sajun [hahn sah-joon], or Four Commanderies of Han. Lelang Commandery, centered on Pyongyang, controlled 25 counties. Zhenfan was established in the Hwanghae region, Lintun in southern Hamgyong and northern Gangwon provinces, and Xuantu in the northwest of Goguryeo’s future territory.
According to the Book of Han geography section, Lelang’s population reached a maximum of 62,812 households—approximately 400,000 people. This was a substantial population for East Asia at the time, comparable to a medium-sized Roman province. However, not all were Han Chinese. The vast majority were indigenous people of Gojoseon. Officials dispatched from Han and migrated Han Chinese were a small minority—perhaps only 5-10% of the total population, similar to how British colonial administrators were vastly outnumbered by Indians in colonial India.
This demographic reality shaped everything that followed. Unlike the wholesale population replacement that occurred in some ancient conquests (such as the Assyrian deportations), the Han Commanderies represented a thin layer of Chinese administration attempting to govern a fundamentally Korean population. Think of it as similar to Roman Britain—a veneer of imperial culture overlaying persistent indigenous traditions.
“In the third year of Yuanfeng [108 BC], [Emperor Wu] conquered Joseon and divided its land into four commanderies: Lelang, Zhenfan, Lintun, and Xuantu.”
– Book of Han, Volume 28, Geography Section
◆ Same Era, Different Worlds
🏛️ Han China
Peak of Emperor Wu’s reign. Having driven the Xiongnu [shyoong-noo] north and conquered Nanyue [nahn-yoo-eh] in the south, Han achieved maximum territorial extent. Silk Road expansion westward. Population: ~60 million, making it the world’s largest empire alongside Rome
🗿 Roman Republic
Late Republican turmoil. Chaos from civil wars between Marius and Sulla. First Triumvirate (Caesar, Pompey, Crassus) still 52 years away. Rome controlling Mediterranean but internally unstable. Spartacus rebellion (73-71 BC) fresh in memory
🏺 Parthian Empire
Mithridates II’s golden age. Controlling Silk Road trade as middleman between Rome and Han. Prosperity from East-West commerce. Would clash with Rome at Carrhae (53 BC), demonstrating eastern military might
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[Image: Panoramic view of Lelang earthen fortress in Pyongyang and map of the Four Han Commanderies – A 1st century BC Korean Peninsula map showing the locations of Lelang, Zhenfan, Lintun, and Xuantu commanderies. Features the Lelang fortress on the Taedong River and distribution of its 25 counties]
📜 Scene from That Day
“Autumn, 108 BC. Pyongyang. The first Lelang commandery governor arrived with his entourage—merely dozens of men. Yet he was to govern hundreds of thousands. Most still spoke the language of Joseon, followed the customs of Joseon, worshipped the gods of Joseon. They were the people of Gojoseon.”
“On the streets, officials in Han robes could be seen, but the market merchants still wore Joseon-style clothing. Han wuzhu [woo-joo] coins circulated, yet barter persisted. ‘This is no longer Joseon. This is Han territory,’ the governor declared. But reality was far more complex. Two worlds—Chinese and Korean—now occupied the same space, beginning four centuries of coexistence, conflict, and cultural fusion.”
◆ Uncovering Historical Truth
The Four Commanderies were never a completed system. When established in 108 BC, all four existed, but within just 26 years—by 82 BC—Zhenfan and Lintun were abolished. Indigenous resistance was too fierce. Zhenfan was merged into Lelang, Lintun into Xuantu. Lelang established Southern and Eastern Commandants to indirectly govern these regions—a tacit admission that direct rule had failed.
By 75 BC, even Xuantu Commandery retreated westward to Liaodong due to indigenous opposition. Ultimately, only Lelang remained substantially on the Korean Peninsula. Yet even Lelang was not under Han’s direct control but maintained through compromise with indigenous power structures. The seals discovered in Pyongyang’s Jeongbaekdong tombs—inscribed “Lord of Bujoyegoon [boo-jo-yeh-goon]” and “Chieftain of Bujo”—prove that Gojoseon-descended indigenous ruling classes still existed and held authority.
This dual administration system resembles other ancient imperial arrangements. In Roman Britain, native Celtic chieftains often retained local authority under Roman oversight. In Han China’s western regions, local kings ruled as Han vassals. The Han Commanderies in Korea followed this pattern—Han officials handled foreign relations and taxation, while indigenous elites managed daily governance and traditional affairs.
Wooden tablets excavated in Pyongyang in 2005 revealed even more startling facts. These tablets recorded populations for Lelang’s 25 counties: 62,812 households totaling 406,748 people. This meant most of the northern Korean Peninsula’s population was incorporated into the Lelang system. However, most were indigenous people, and Han maintained substantial autonomy for existing Gojoseon social structures through indirect rule—a pragmatic response to the reality that direct administration of such a large, culturally distinct population was impossible.
Establishment
108 BC (Lelang, Zhenfan, Lintun), 107 BC (Xuantu). Similar to Roman provincial system
Lelang Population
62,812 households, ~400,000 people (peak). Comparable to Roman Syria’s 600,000
Duration
Lelang: 420 years (108 BC-AD 313). Zhenfan/Lintun: 26 years only. Longer than most Roman provinces
End
AD 313, Goguryeo’s King Micheon [mee-chuh-ohn] expelled Lelang completely
🔍 Academic Perspectives
Mainstream View (Western & Most Korean Scholars)
The Four Commanderies, particularly Lelang, were located in northern Korean Peninsula centered on Pyongyang. Over 3,000 tombs, clay seals, and wooden tablets excavated in the Pyongyang area prove this. However, Han’s direct rule was limited to the early period; most of the time involved compromised indirect governance with indigenous powers. Similar to Roman client kingdoms
Alternative View (Some Korean Scholars)
Some scholars claim the Commanderies were in Liaodong (western Manchuria), not Korea. Based on a 2014 Beijing-area discovery of bricks inscribed “Lelang Commandery, Joseon County resident.” However, compared to Pyongyang’s massive artifact corpus, this theory lacks persuasive power. Analogous to fringe theories denying Roman Britain’s existence
◆ Secrets of Lelang Tombs: Windows into a Lost World
Pyongyang’s Seokamri [suh-kahm-ree] Tomb No. 9 is among Lelang’s highest-status burials. Excavated in 1916, it contained lacquerware inscribed with the year AD 8, precisely dating the tomb. The structure—a pit grave with large wooden outer and inner coffins—represents sophisticated mortuary architecture rivaling contemporary Roman tombs. Burial goods included Chinese-imported luxury items: lacquerware, bronze mirrors, gold jewelry. These artifacts match finds from Han imperial tombs in China proper, indicating the tomb occupant held extremely high status—possibly equivalent to a Roman provincial governor.
Jeongbaekdong [juhng-bake-dohng] Tomb No. 1 yielded the painted lacquerware called “Chaehyeop Chong [chay-hyuhp chohng]”—splendid lacquer artworks. Intricate patterns painted on red lacquer demonstrate Han China’s highest technical level, comparable to Roman glass or Greek pottery in craftsmanship. Seokamri Tomb No. 9’s gold belt buckle, made of pure gold with engraved dragon and phoenix designs, reveals how elite the tomb owner was. Only the wealthiest could afford such items—similar to how only Roman senators could wear the toga with purple stripe.
The most noteworthy discovery: bamboo slips with Confucian Analects text found in Jeongodong [juhng-oh-dohng] tomb. This is direct evidence that Chinese character culture spread to the Korean Peninsula through Lelang—analogous to how Latin spread through Roman provinces or Arabic through Islamic expansion. Wang Guang’s tomb contained Later Han period seals, proving Lelang persisted over 400 years. These archaeological treasures paint a vivid picture of Lelang as a cosmopolitan frontier society where Chinese and Korean cultures intermingled, creating something entirely new.
◆ Speaking to Our Present
The Four Han Commanderies, particularly Lelang, constitute one of Korean history’s most controversial topics. During Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945), Japanese scholars weaponized the Commanderies, arguing “the Korean Peninsula has been under Chinese domination since ancient times” to justify colonial domination—a cynical misuse of historical evidence to serve imperial ambitions, similar to how European colonial powers distorted African and Asian histories.
This politicization led some Korean scholars to deny the Commanderies’ existence or relocate them outside Korea. However, distinguishing historical fact from its interpretation is crucial. That Lelang existed in northern Korea is proven by over 3,000 tombs and countless artifacts excavated in Pyongyang. But this doesn’t mean “Korea was a Chinese colony.” Lelang quickly shifted from attempted direct rule to compromised indirect governance with indigenous powers, and Goguryeo ultimately expelled it completely in 313 AD. The resistance was continuous and ultimately successful.
Indeed, the Commanderies’ history demonstrates Korean resistance and autonomy. Zhenfan and Lintun were abolished within 26 years due to indigenous resistance. Xuantu was driven to Liaodong. Even Lelang couldn’t sustain Han direct rule; indigenous powers retained substantial authority in a dual structure. And eventually, Goguryeo completely expelled Lelang, ending 420 years of history. This mirrors how Rome’s British provinces eventually fell to Saxon resistance, or how Parthia successfully resisted Roman expansion in the East.
The Lelang period shaped Korean civilization profoundly. Chinese writing, Confucian thought, and advanced technologies entered Korea through this portal—much as Roman Britain absorbed Latin literacy and Mediterranean culture, or as Islamic Spain transmitted Greek philosophy to medieval Europe. Yet Koreans selectively adopted these influences while maintaining distinct identity. This pattern of cultural borrowing without loss of self would characterize Korean history for millennia—visible today in how Korea absorbs global culture while creating uniquely Korean expressions like K-pop, K-drama, and Korean cinema that conquer world markets.
| Category | Lelang Era (108 BC-AD 313) | Contemporary Korea |
|---|---|---|
| Governance | Dual structure: Han officials + indigenous powers. Early direct rule → gradual shift to indirect governance. Similar to Roman client kingdoms | North-South division. Each maintaining independent political systems. Pursuing autonomy amid great power influences. Echoes of compromise with external pressures |
| Culture | Chinese character culture spreading. Advanced technology introduction. Yet indigenous culture coexisting (slender bronze daggers culture continuing). Hybrid Lelang culture emerging | Sinic character culture sphere yet independent Hangeul. Accepting Western culture while preserving unique culture. K-Culture spreading globally as distinct civilization |
| Resistance & Independence | Continuous indigenous resistance. Zhenfan/Lintun abolished after 26 years. 313: Goguryeo’s complete expulsion concluding Commandery era. Ultimate triumph of Korean autonomy | Overcoming 36 years of Japanese rule. 1945 liberation. Pursuing autonomous development amid great power intervention. Historic pattern of eventual independence |
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[Image: Artifacts from Pyongyang Seokamri Tomb No. 9 – Splendid painted lacquerware, gold belt buckles, and bronze mirrors displayed. Left side shows Gojoseon-era slender bronze dagger; right side shows Lelang-era Han-style lacquerware, illustrating cultural change and continuity simultaneously]
📚 Diving Deeper
- The 2005 Pyongyang discovery of wooden household registration tablets from Year 4 of Chuyuan (45 BC) precisely records population and locations of Lelang’s 25 counties, becoming definitive evidence for Lelang studies. Similar tablets exist for Roman Egypt and Han China, allowing comparative imperial administration research
- The Lelang earthen fortress on Pyongyang’s Taedong River south bank measures 7km in circumference—a massive fortification serving as the commandery’s administrative center during the Four Commanderies period. North Korean scholars have conducted systematic excavations since the 1990s. Size comparable to major Roman provincial capitals like Londinium (London) or Lutetia (Paris)
- Bamboo Analects slips from Jeongbaekdong Tomb No. 364, announced by North Korea in 1993, estimated to date from the 1st century BC, rank among East Asia’s oldest Analects versions. These represent transmission of Confucian thought to Korea—analogous to how Dead Sea Scrolls illuminate biblical text transmission
The Voice of Living History
Lelang’s 420 years were a time of trial for Koreans, yet simultaneously a period when Chinese literacy and advanced technologies were absorbed, laying foundations for greater development. Indigenous people alternated between resistance and compromise, maintaining their identity. Eventually, Goguryeo completely expelled Lelang, recovering autonomy. This pattern—absorbing foreign influence while maintaining distinct identity—would characterize Korean civilization for millennia.
“History is not the victor’s record alone. It is the story of all who resisted, adapted, and survived.”
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Episode 14: War with Han – The Siege of Wanggeomseong
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Episode 16: Heirs of Gojoseon – Birth of Buyeo and Goguryeo
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This content is based on historical facts and presents various academic perspectives in a balanced manner.
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